What Perspective Emphasizes Studying The Physical Basis Of Human And Animal Behavior

Psychologists today do not believe there is one "right" way to written report the manner people think or deport. At that place are, however, diverse schools of thought that evolved throughout the evolution of psychology that proceed to shape the fashion psychologists investigate human behavior. For instance, some psychologists might attribute a certain behavior to biological factors such equally genetics while another psychologist might consider early childhood experiences to exist a more likely explanation for the behavior. Because psychologists might emphasize various points within psychology in their research and analysis of behavior, there are different viewpoints in psychology. These schools of thought are known as approaches, or perspectives.

Link to Learning: Review the five main psychological perspectives constitute HERE.

The Psychodynamic Perspective

Psychodynamic theory is an approach to psychology that studies the psychological forces underlying human beliefs, feelings, and emotions, and how they may relate to early childhood experience. This theory is especially interested in the dynamic relations betwixt conscious and unconscious motivation, and asserts that behavior is the product of underlying conflicts over which people often have little awareness.

Psychodynamic theory was born in 1874 with the works of German scientist Ernst von Brucke, who supposed that all living organisms are energy systems governed by the principle of the conservation of free energy. During the same year, medical student Sigmund Freud adopted this new "dynamic" physiology and expanded it to create the original concept of "psychodynamics," in which he suggested that psychological processes are flows of psychosexual energy (libido) in a complex brain. Freud also coined the term "psychoanalysis." Later, these theories were developed further by Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Melanie Klein, and others. By the mid-1940s and into the 1950s, the full general awarding of the "psychodynamic theory" had been well established.

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud developed the field of psychoanalytic psychology and the psychosexual theory of human development.

The Part of the Unconscious

Freud'due south theory of psychoanalysis holds two major assumptions: (one) that much of mental life is unconscious (i.e., outside of awareness), and (2) that past experiences, peculiarly in early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life. The concept of the unconscious was central: Freud postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed but go along to operate unconsciously in the mind, and and then reappear in consciousness nether certain circumstances. Much of Freud's theory was based on his investigations of patients suffering from "hysteria" and neurosis. Hysteria was an aboriginal diagnosis that was primarily used for women with a wide diversity of symptoms, including physical symptoms and emotional disturbances with no credible physical cause. The history of the term can be traced to ancient Greece, where the idea emerged that a woman'south uterus could float around her torso and cause a variety of disturbances. Freud theorized instead that many of his patients' bug arose from the unconscious listen. In Freud's view, the unconscious heed was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have no awareness.

The treatment of a patient referred to equally Anna O. is regarded as marking the beginning of psychoanalysis. Freud worked together with Austrian physician Josef Breuer to care for Anna O.'s "hysteria," which Freud implied was a effect of the resentment she felt over her father'due south real and physical disease that later led to his expiry. Today many researchers believe that her illness was not psychological, as Freud suggested, but either neurological or organic.

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud's structural model of personality divides the personality into three parts—the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is the unconscious part that is the cauldron of raw drives, such as for sex or aggression. The ego, which has conscious and unconscious elements, is the rational and reasonable role of personality. Its role is to maintain contact with the outside globe to keep the individual in touch with society, and to practise this it mediates between the conflicting tendencies of the id and the superego. The superego is a person's conscience, which develops early in life and is learned from parents, teachers, and others. Like the ego, the superego has conscious and unconscious elements. When all iii parts of the personality are in dynamic equilibrium, the private is thought to be mentally salubrious. However, if the ego is unable to mediate between the id and the superego, an imbalance is believed to occur in the class of psychological distress.

Freud's theory of the unconscious Freud believed that we are only aware of a small amount of our mind'due south activity, and that most of it remains subconscious from us in our unconscious. The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it.

Psychosexual Theory of Development

Freud's theories besides placed a great bargain of emphasis on sexual evolution. Freud believed that each of us must pass through a serial of stages during childhood, and that if we lack proper nurturing during a particular stage, we may go stuck or fixated in that stage. Freud'due south psychosexual model of evolution includes v stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. According to Freud, children'southward pleasance-seeking urges are focused on a different surface area of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of these five stages. Psychologists today dispute that Freud'south psychosexual stages provide a legitimate explanation for how personality develops, merely what we can take away from Freud'south theory is that personality is shaped, in some part, by experiences we take in childhood.

Jungian Psychodynamics

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychotherapist who expanded upon Freud'south theories at the plow of the 20th century. A primal concept of Jung'due south analytical psychology is individuation: the psychological process of integrating opposites, including the witting with the unconscious, while still maintaining their relative autonomy. Jung focused less on infantile development and conflict betwixt the id and superego and instead focused more on integration between different parts of the person. Jung created some of the best-known psychological concepts, including the archetype, the collective unconscious, the complex, and synchronicity.

Psychodynamics Today

Now, psychodynamics is an evolving multidisciplinary field that analyzes and studies human idea processes, response patterns, and influences. Inquiry in this field focuses on areas such as:

• understanding and anticipating the range of witting and unconscious responses to specific sensory inputs, such equally images, colors, textures, sounds, etc.;
• utilizing the communicative nature of motion and central physiological gestures to touch on and written report specific mind-body states; and
• examining the capacity of the listen and senses to direct touch physiological response and biological change.

Psychodynamic therapy, in which patients go increasingly aware of dynamic conflicts and tensions that are manifesting as a symptom or challenge in their lives, is an approach to therapy that is still ordinarily used today.

The Behavioral Perspective

Behaviorism is an arroyo to psychology that emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction to the psychoanalytic theory of the fourth dimension. Psychoanalytic theory oft had difficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically without recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs. Rather than focusing on underlying conflicts, behaviorism focuses on observable, overt behaviors that are learned from the environment.

Its application to the treatment of mental problems is known as behavior modification. Learning is seen every bit behavior change molded past experience; it is accomplished largely through either classical or operant workout (described below).

The primary developments in behaviorism came from the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Edward Lee Thorndike, and B. F. Skinner.

Ivan Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

The Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was widely known for describing the phenomenon now known as classical conditioning. In his famous 1890s experiment, he trained his dogs to salivate on command by associating the ringing of a bong with the delivery of food. As Pavlov'southward work became known in the Westward, specially through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of conditioning as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the development of behaviorism.

Ivan Pavlov Ivan Pavlov is all-time known for his classical conditioning experiments with dogs.

Watson'due south "Fiddling Albert" Experiment

John B. Watson was an American psychologist who is best known for his controversial "Petty Albert" experiment. In this experiment, he used classical conditioning to teach a nine-month-old boy to exist afraid of a white toy rat by associating the rat with a sudden loud racket. This study demonstrated how emotions could become conditioned responses.

Watson'south "Trivial Albert" experiment In Watson'southward famous experiment, he taught an infant to be agape of a fur glaze, amongst other things, through the procedure of workout.

Thorndike's Police force of Effect

Edward Lee Thorndike was an American psychologist whose work on fauna beliefs and the learning process led to the "constabulary of effect." The law of effect states that responses that create a satisfying issue are more likely to occur again, while responses that produce a discomforting effect go less likely to occur.

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

"Operant conditioning," a term coined by psychologist B. F. Skinner, describes a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its association with either positive or negative consequences. The strengthening of a response occurs through reinforcement. Skinner described two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement, which is the introduction of a positive effect such as nutrient, pleasurable activities, or attention from others, and negative reinforcement, which is the removal of a negative consequence such as pain or a loud racket. Skinner saw human behavior every bit shaped by trial and error through reinforcement and punishment, without any reference to inner conflicts or perceptions. In his theory, mental disorders represented maladaptive behaviors that were learned and could be unlearned through behavior modification.

Behaviorism Today

In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was expanded through advances in cognitive theories. While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological idea may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which has been used widely in the handling of many different mental disorders, such as phobias, PTSD, and addiction.

Some behavior therapies employ Skinner's theories of operant conditioning: by not reinforcing certain behaviors, these behaviors can be extinguished. Skinner'south radical behaviorism advanced a "triple contingency" model, which explored the links between the environs, behavior, and the mind. This afterward gave rise to applied behavior analysis (ABA), in which operant conditioning techniques are used to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors. This approach to handling has been an effective tool to help children on the autism spectrum; however, it is considered controversial past many who encounter information technology as attempting to change or "normalize" autistic behaviors (Lovaas, 1987, 2003; Sallows & Graupner, 2005; Wolf & Risley, 1967).

The Cognitive Perspective

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that examines internal mental processes such every bit problem solving, retentiveness, and language. "Cognition" refers to thinking and retention processes, and "cognitive development" refers to long-term changes in these processes. Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modernistic disciplines of psychological study, including social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, educational psychology, and behavioral economics.

Cognitive psychology is radically dissimilar from previous psychological approaches in that it is characterized past both of the following:

1. It accepts the use of the scientific method and mostly rejects introspection as a valid method of investigation, unlike phenomenological methods such as Freudian psychoanalysis.
2. It explicitly acknowledges the beingness of internal mental states (such as belief, want, and motivation), unlike behaviorist psychology.

Cognitive theory contends that solutions to issues take the grade of algorithms, heuristics, or insights. Major areas of research in cognitive psychology include perception, retentiveness, categorization, cognition representation, numerical cognition, language, and thinking.

History of Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology is i of the more than recent additions to psychological inquiry. Though there are examples of cognitive approaches from earlier researchers, cerebral psychology really developed as a subfield within psychology in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The development of the field was heavily influenced by contemporary advancements in technology and computer science.

Early Roots

In 1958, Donald Broadbent integrated concepts from homo-functioning research and the recently developed data theory in his book Perception and Communication, which paved the fashion for the information-processing model of cognition. Ulric Neisser is credited with formally having coined the term "cognitive psychology" in his volume of the same name, published in 1967. The perspective had its foundations in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who studied intellectual development in children.

Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early days of this movement. Chomsky (1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology'due south focus on behavior was curt-sighted and that the field had to reincorporate mental operation into its purview if information technology were to offer any meaningful contributions to agreement behavior (Miller, 2003).

Jean Piaget'south Theory of Cognitive Development

Instead of approaching evolution from a psychoanalytic or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children'due south cerebral growth. He is about widely known for his stage theory of cerebral development, which outlines how children become able to think logically and scientifically over time. As they progress to a new phase, in that location is a distinct shift in how they call back and reason.

Jean Piaget Piaget is best known for his stage theory of cognitive development.

The Humanistic Perspective

Humanistic psychology is a psychological perspective that rose to prominence in the mid-20th century, drawing on the philosophies of existentialism and phenomenology, too as Eastern philosophy. Information technology adopts a holistic arroyo to human existence through investigations of concepts such as meaning, values, freedom, tragedy, personal responsibility, man potential, spirituality, and self-appearing.

Basic Principles of the Humanistic Perspective

The humanistic perspective is a holistic psychological perspective that attributes human being characteristics and actions to free will and an innate drive for cocky-actualization. This arroyo focuses on maximum homo potential and achievement rather than psychoses and symptoms of disorder. It emphasizes that people are inherently good and pays special attention to personal experiences and inventiveness. This perspective has led to advances in positive, educational, and industrial psychology, and has been applauded for its successful awarding to psychotherapy and social issues. Despite its groovy influence, humanistic psychology has also been criticized for its subjectivity and lack of testify.

Developments in Humanistic Psychology

In the late 1950s, a grouping of psychologists convened in Detroit, Michigan, to discuss their interest in a psychology that focused on uniquely human being problems, such equally the cocky, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming, individuality, and meaning. These preliminary meetings eventually culminated in the description of humanistic psychology as a recognizable "third strength" in psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanism'southward major theorists were Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Rollo May, and Clark Moustakas; information technology was also influenced by psychoanalytic theorists, including Wilhelm Reich, who discussed an essentially proficient, salubrious core self, and Carl Gustav Jung, who emphasized the concept of archetypes.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) is considered the founder of humanistic psychology, and is noted for his conceptualization of a hierarchy of man needs. He believed that every person has a strong desire to realize his or her full potential—or to accomplish what he called "self-actualization." Dissimilar many of his predecessors, Maslow studied mentally healthy individuals instead of people with serious psychological bug. Through his research he coined the term "peak experiences," which he defined every bit "high points" in which people feel at harmony with themselves and their surroundings. Cocky-actualized people, he believed, have more of these summit experiences throughout a given day than others.

To explain his theories, Maslow created a visual, which he termed the "hierarchy of needs." This pyramid depicts various levels of physical and psychological needs that a person progresses through during their lifetime. At the bottom of the pyramid are the bones physiological needs of a human being, such as food and water. The side by side level is safety, which includes shelter and needs paramount to concrete survival. The 3rd level, love and belonging, is the psychological need to share oneself with others. The fourth level, esteem, focuses on success, condition, and accomplishments. The top of the pyramid is self-actualization, in which a person is believed to accept reached a land of harmony and understanding. Individuals progress from lower to college stages throughout their lives, and cannot achieve higher stages without first meeting the lower needs that come up before them.

Maslow's bureaucracy of needs In Maslow'southward hierarchy of needs, a person must start take their lower-level, concrete needs met before they can progress to fulfilling higher-level, psychological needs.

Rogers' Person-Centered Therapy

Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is all-time known for his person-centered arroyo, in which the human relationship between therapist and customer is used to assist the patient attain a country of realization, so that they tin can then assistance themselves. His not-directive arroyo focuses more on the present than the past and centers on clients' capacity for self-direction and understanding of their own development. The therapist encourages the patient to express their feelings and does non suggest how the person might wish to alter. Instead, the therapist uses the skills of active listening and mirroring to help patients explore and empathize their feelings for themselves.

Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was i of the early pioneers of humanistic psychology, and is best known for his person-centered approach to therapy.

Rogers is also known for practicing "unconditional positive regard," which is defined as accepting a person in their entirety with no negative judgment of their essential worth. He believed that those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves, while those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they lucifer conditions that have been laid down by others.

May's Existentialism

Rollo May (1909–1994) was the all-time known American existential psychologist, and differed from other humanistic psychologists by showing a sharper awareness of the tragic dimensions of human being beingness. May was influenced by American humanism, and emphasized the importance of human choice.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Humanistic psychology is holistic in nature: it takes whole persons into business relationship rather than their divide traits or processes. In this way, people are not reduced to 1 particular attribute or set of characteristics, but instead are appreciated for the complex beings that they are. Humanistic psychology allows for a personality concept that is dynamic and fluid and accounts for much of the change a person experiences over a lifetime. It stresses the importance of complimentary volition and personal responsibility for conclusion-making; this view gives the witting human existence some necessary autonomy and frees them from deterministic principles. Maybe most importantly, the humanistic perspective emphasizes the need to strive for positive goals and explains man potential in a way that other theories cannot.

However, critics have taken issue with many of the early tenets of humanism, such as its lack of empirical prove (as was the example with virtually early psychological approaches). Because of the inherent subjective nature of the humanistic arroyo, psychologists worry that this perspective does not identify enough constant variables in society to be researched with consistency and accuracy. Psychologists likewise worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of external societal factors on personality development. In addition, The major tenet of humanistic personality psychology—namely, that people are innately proficient and intuitively seek positive goals—does non account for the presence of deviance in the world within normal, performance personalities.

The Socio-Cultural Perspective

Sociocultural factors are the larger-calibration forces within cultures and societies that touch on the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals. These include forces such every bit attitudes, child-rearing practices, discrimination and prejudice, ethnic and racial identity, gender roles and norms, family and kinship structures, ability dynamics, regional differences, religious beliefs and practices, rituals, and taboos. Several subfields within psychology seek to examine these sociocultural factors that influence human mental states and behavior; amongst these are social psychology, cultural psychology, and cultural-historical psychology.

Cultural Psychology

Cultural psychology is the study of how psychological and behavioral tendencies are rooted and embedded within civilization. The main tenet of cultural psychology is that mind and civilisation are inseparable and mutually constitutive, meaning that people are shaped by their culture and their culture is also shaped by them.

A major goal of cultural psychology is to expand the number and variation of cultures that contribute to basic psychological theories, and then that these theories become more relevant to the predictions, descriptions, and explanations of all human behaviors—non but Western ones. Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to exist overrepresented in psychological enquiry, nonetheless findings from this enquiry tend to exist labeled "universal" and inaccurately practical to other cultures. The bear witness that social values, logical reasoning, and bones cognitive and motivational processes vary across populations has get increasingly difficult to ignore. By studying only a narrow range of civilisation within human populations, psychologists neglect to account for a substantial amount of diversity.

White American civilization Populations that are Western, educated, and industrialized tend to exist overrepresented in psychological research. By studying only a narrow range of homo culture, psychologists fail to account for a substantial amount of variation.

Cultural psychology is often confused with cross-cultural psychology; nevertheless, information technology is singled-out in that cross-cultural psychologists generally utilise civilisation every bit a means of testing the universality of psychological processes, rather than determining how local cultural practices shape psychological processes. So while a cross-cultural psychologist might inquire whether Jean Piaget's stages of development are universal beyond a variety of cultures, a cultural psychologist would be interested in how the social practices of a detail fix of cultures shape the evolution of cognitive processes in different means.

Vygotsky and Cultural-Historical Psychology

Cultural-historical psychology is a psychological theory formed by Lev Vygotsky in the belatedly 1920s and further developed by his students and followers in Eastern Europe and worldwide. This theory focuses on how aspects of culture, such as values, beliefs, customs, and skills, are transmitted from one generation to the next. According to Vygotsky, social interaction—particularly involvement with knowledgeable community or family unit members—helps children to acquire the thought processes and behaviors specific to their civilisation and/or society. The growth that children feel equally a consequence of these interactions differs greatly between cultures; this variance allows children to get competent in tasks that are considered of import or necessary in their particular society.

Social Psychology

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the bodily, imagined, or implied presence of others. This subfield of psychology is concerned with the fashion such feelings, thoughts, behavior, intentions, and goals are constructed, and how these psychological factors, in turn, influence our interactions with others.

Focus of Social Psychology

Social psychology typically explains human behavior equally a issue of the interaction of mental states and immediate social situations. Social psychologists, therefore, examine the factors that lead us to behave in a given style in the presence of others, likewise as the weather nether which sure behaviors, actions, and feelings occur. They focus on how people construe or interpret situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables interact to influence beliefs.

Social psychologists assert that an private'southward thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. Essentially, people will modify their behavior to align with the social situation at hand. If we are in a new state of affairs or are unsure how to conduct, we will accept our cues from other individuals.

The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intrapersonal level (pertaining to the individual), such every bit emotions and attitudes, and the interpersonal level (pertaining to groups), such as aggression and attraction. The field is also concerned with common cognitive biases—such as the central attribution fault, the actor-observer bias, the self-serving bias, and the only-earth hypothesis—that influence our behavior and our perceptions of events.

Trayvon Martin, a 17-yr-former African American youth, was shot to death at the easily of George Zimmerman, a white volunteer neighborhood watchman, in 2012. His decease sparked a heated debate around the country about the effects of racism in the Usa. Social psychologists theorize about how different cognitive biases influence people'due south perspectives on the event. (credit "signs": modification of work past David Shankbone; credit "walk": modification of work past "Fibonacci Blueish"/Flickr)

History of Social Psychology

The discipline of social psychology began in the United states in the early 20th century. The first published written report in this area was an experiment in 1898 by Norman Triplett on the phenomenon of social facilitation. During the 1930s, Gestalt psychologists such equally Kurt Lewin were instrumental in developing the field equally something separate from the behavioral and psychoanalytic schools that were dominant during that time.

During World War II, social psychologists studied the concepts of persuasion and propaganda for the U.S. military. Afterwards the war, researchers became interested in a variety of social issues including gender bug, racial prejudice, cognitive dissonance, bystander intervention, aggression, and obedience to dominance. During the years immediately following Globe War Two there was frequent collaboration between psychologists and sociologists; still, the two disciplines take become increasingly specialized and isolated from each other in recent years, with sociologists focusing more on macro-level variables (such equally social structure).

The Biological Perspective

Biopsychology—also known equally biological psychology or psychobiology—is the application of the principles of biology to the study of mental processes and beliefs. The fields of behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology are all subfields of biological psychology.

Overview of Biopsychology

Biopsychologists are interested in measuring biological, physiological, and/or genetic variables and attempting to relate them to psychological or behavioral variables. Because all beliefs is controlled by the key nervous arrangement, biopsychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in social club to empathize behavior. Fundamental areas of focus include awareness and perception, motivated behavior (such as hunger, thirst, and sex), control of movement, learning and memory, sleep and biological rhythms, and emotion. Every bit technical composure leads to advancements in research methods, more than advanced topics, such as linguistic communication, reasoning, decision-making, and consciousness, are now existence studied.

Brain-imaging techniques Dissimilar brain-imaging techniques provide scientists with insight into unlike aspects of how the man encephalon functions. Three types of scans include (left to correct) PET browse (positron emission tomography), CT scan (computed tomography), and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). (credit "left": modification of work past Wellness and Human Services Department, National Institutes of Health; credit "center": modification of work past "Aceofhearts1968″/Wikimedia Commons; credit "right": modification of work by Kim J, Matthews NL, Park S.)

Behavioral neuroscience has a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that autumn into the realm of clinical psychology. Neuropsychologists are often employed every bit scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge, and neuropsychology is specially concerned with agreement brain injuries in an attempt to learn about normal psychological functioning. Neuroimaging tools, such equally functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans, are often used to observe which areas of the brain are agile during particular tasks in order to aid psychologists sympathize the link betwixt brain and behavior.

MRI of the human being brain Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans of the head are often used to assistance psychologists understand the links between brain and behavior.

History

Biopsychology as a scientific field of study emerged from a diversity of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. Philosophers similar Rene Descartes proposed physical models to explicate animal and human being beliefs. Descartes suggested, for example, that the pineal gland, a midline unpaired structure in the encephalon of many organisms, was the point of contact between heed and torso. In The Principles of Psychology (1890), William James argued that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biological science. The emergence of both psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate sciences can be traced to the emergence of physiology during the 18th and 19th centuries; yet, it was not until 1914 that the term "psychobiology" was first used in its modern sense past Knight Dunlap in An Outline of Psychobiology.

Pineal gland Descartes suggested that the pineal gland was the point of contact between mind and torso.

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